<figure>
 <img decoding="async" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308779/original/file-20200107-123377-2bsrfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&#038;q=45&#038;auto=format&#038;w=754&#038;fit=clip" />
 <figcaption>
 High resolution satellite image of the Nile River’s delta.
 Shutterstock/TommoT
 </figcaption>
 </figure>

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/ethan-d-coffel-389546">Ethan D. Coffel</a>, <a href="http://theconversation.com/institutions/dartmouth-college-1720">Dartmouth College</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/justin-s-mankin-930128">Justin S. Mankin</a>, <a href="http://theconversation.com/institutions/dartmouth-college-1720">Dartmouth College</a>

The Nile – the world’s longest river – runs through <a href="https://ascelibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.1061/9780784481394.026">11 countries</a> in Africa and <a href="https://www.internationalrivers.org/campaigns/nile-basin">has a basin</a> that covers about 3 million sq kms, nearly 10% of the continent’s landmass. About <a href="http://atlas.nilebasin.org/treatise/estimated-and-projected-total-population-in-nile-basin-countries/">250 million people</a> are reliant on the Nile’s waters in Ethiopia, Uganda, South Sudan, Sudan and Egypt. 

Nearly all of the rainfall that feeds the Nile’s two major tributaries – the Blue and White Nile – falls in the upper Nile basin, found in South Sudan, western Ethiopia and Uganda. The lower Nile basin receives very little rainfall and the countries there – Sudan and Egypt – depend heavily on the Nile for water. 

Climate projections suggest that, by the end of the century, the amount of rain in the Upper Nile basin could increase <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2019EF001247">by up to 20%</a>. But our <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2019EF001247">new paper</a> shows that, despite more rainfall, devastating hot and dry spells are projected to become more frequent in the Upper Nile basin. 

These conditions will occur simultaneously with the region’s rapid population growth, <a href="http://atlas.nilebasin.org/treatise/estimated-and-projected-total-population-in-nile-basin-countries/">anticipated</a> to double by the middle of this century. This will increase water stress in the region, irrespective of the modest rainfall increases.

At present, around 10% of the basin’s population faces chronic <a href="https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml">water scarcity</a> due to the region’s seasonal aridity and the highly unequal distribution of water resources. By 2040, according to our research – in a year with average temperatures and rain – the number of people facing water scarcity could reach 35%. That’s more than 80 million people without enough water to function in their daily lives.

Hot and dry conditions will make this worse. These conditions will kill crops, reduce hydropower, diminish the water available for people and industry and heighten tensions over the distribution of regional water resources. By 2040, a hot and dry year could push over 45% of the people in the Nile Basin – nearly 110 million people – into water scarcity. 

Even without these developments, population growth would drive water scarcity in the Upper Nile. But larger deficits in the amount of water flowing into streams and rivers during future hot and dry years will amplify this effect. This will leave an additional 5% to 15% of the future population in the Upper Nile basin facing water scarcity in hot and dry years.

These climate and population changes will project onto an already complex and tense socioeconomic and political landscape. 

The Nile’s 11 riparian states vie with one another for the river’s water. The downstream states of Egypt and Sudan try to assert control over the Nile flow, while upstream states try to find ways to secure water for their well-being. Coupled with the region’s strong dependence on subsistence agriculture and political instability, the region is at risk of severe food and water shortages. 

<h2>More hot and dry years</h2>

For our research, we wanted to understand how much more frequent hot and dry years could become, despite the slight increase in overall rainfall.

To do this we assessed historical climate trends in the Upper Nile Basin using eight observational data sets. These recorded rainfall and temperature in the Upper Nile basin between 1961 and 2005. We also used climate models to estimate how temperature and precipitation will change over the remaining century.

Our findings show that hot and dry years have become more common over the past four decades in the Upper Nile basin and that this trend is likely to continue. These hot and dry conditions will be similar to those that have resulted in crop failures, food shortages and humanitarian crises in the region over the past decades. 

By the late 21st century, the frequency of these hot and dry years may rise between a factor of 1.5 and 3. In the past, hot and dry years occurred about once every 20 years; but this increase in frequency means that in the future a hot and dry year could occur once every six to 10 years, making them a common experience for people in the region. 

In addition to becoming more frequent, they will also become more severe. Temperatures during heat waves in the region could rise between 2°C and 6°C, putting far more stress on people, animals and crops than occurs today.

We estimated the number of people facing water scarcity by comparing the total runoff – the amount of water flowing into streams and rivers – which is available for human consumption with the amount of water every person needs to meet their basic needs. When we make this comparison, we find that despite the small projected increase in rainfall, as the population rises and hot and dry years become more frequent, the total water supply will be far less than needed to meet the region’s needs.

<h2>Causes</h2>

What’s causing all this?

Like the rest of the world, the <a href="https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1860/A%20Climate%20Trend%20Analysis%20of%20Ethiopia.pdf">Nile Basin region has been warming</a> due to rising global greenhouse gas concentrations. Because rainfall is projected to slightly increase in the region, the frequency of dry years won’t change significantly. However, the rise in temperature means that when dry years happen, they will be hot. 

Compounding this drying is a projected increase in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate3273">year-to-year variations</a> in rainfall, which may be due to projected intensification of El Niño and La Niña cycles. This creates a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0140-y">precipitation “whiplash”</a> in the region, where severe <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/islamic-relief-responds-flash-floods-devastate-white-nile-sudan">wet</a> and <a href="https://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/18/1239/2014/">dry</a> years occur in quick succession. 

<h2>What can be done</h2>

One critical priority is to ensure that food and water are more equally available to all. Despite there being enough food and water on average, many people <a href="https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/09.30.19_-_USAID-DCHA_Ethiopia_Complex_Emergency_Fact_Sheet_3.pdf">cannot afford or access it</a>. This will get worse.

A critical first step is for basin states to create an equitable water allocation scheme among them that not only addresses “historical rights” – such as Egypt’s long-held claims to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03932729.2017.1333272">two-thirds of Nile flow</a> – but also to the needs of upstream countries like South Sudan and Ethiopia, which require water to build their economies. 

Cooperative water-sharing institutions within the basin could help avert contentious situations. For instance, Ethiopia is currently constructing the <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-dam-factbox/factbox-key-facts-about-ethiopias-giant-nile-dam-idUSKBN1XG21L">Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam</a> on the Blue Nile River. Without strong regional institutions to provide political and legal assurances of fair Nile water use, the dam’s construction is provoking worries in Egypt, as it would likely reduce irrigation water availability for the country’s agriculture.

Water may be often pointed to as a source of conflict, but as with the case of <a href="http://www.columbia.edu/%7Etmd2118/situstudio/why_cooperation.pdf">Israel and Jordan</a>, it can also be a means to cooperation, getting nations to the negotiating table. In a future world with more people and less water, countries in the Nile Basin will need to work together to ensure the best use of the region’s resources to catch and store rainfall in the wet, flood risk years, and equally distribute that water in dry years. 

If the region’s governments fail to work together to prepare, the consequences for their people could be catastrophic.<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/129360/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important; text-shadow: none !important" />

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/ethan-d-coffel-389546">Ethan D. Coffel</a>, Neukom Institute Postdoctoral Fellow, <a href="http://theconversation.com/institutions/dartmouth-college-1720">Dartmouth College</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/justin-s-mankin-930128">Justin S. Mankin</a>, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, <a href="http://theconversation.com/institutions/dartmouth-college-1720">Dartmouth College</a>

This article is republished from <a href="http://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/in-the-future-there-will-be-more-rain-but-less-water-in-the-nile-basin-129360">original article</a>.

Nile_River_Shutterstock_TommoT

In the future there will be more rain but less water in the Nile Basin, what can be done?

By <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/emad-hasan-773516">Emad Hasan</a>, <a href="http://theconversation.com/institutions/binghamton-university-state-university-of-new-york-2252">Binghamton University, State University of New York</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/aondover-tarhule-773518">Aondover Tarhule</a>, <a href="http://theconversation.com/institutions/binghamton-university-state-university-of-new-york-2252">Binghamton University, State University of New York</a>

Today, more than 700 million people around the world <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water">drink water from unsafe or untreated sources</a>, such as wells, springs and surface water. 

About half of these people live in sub-Saharan Africa. In fact, in more than 30 African countries, fewer than 20% of the people <a href="https://thewaterproject.org/water-scarcity">have access to safe drinking water</a>. 

<a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/climate-change-water-en.pdf">Climate change is likely to worsen the situation</a> by making water less available in some locations and by changing the amounts and timing when water is available. 

Determining whether a region has sufficient water to satisfy the needs of people who live there is a complicated and imperfect process. Our research team has developed a new approach <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11080904">to measure water scarcity</a> by using satellites hundreds of miles in space. 

<h2>How to measure water scarcity</h2>

To estimate water scarcity, hydrologists, the people who study the science of water, build what they call a <a href="https://naturalsciences.ch/topics/water/water_balance">“water budget.”</a> 

They estimate all of the water entering the country – from rivers, rainfall, groundwater and man-made sources – and then subtract all of the water exiting the country. This produces an estimate of the available water in the country or region. 

By dividing the available water by the population in the region, hydrologists can tell whether there is sufficient water to meet people’s needs. 

Generally, in the U.S., <a href="https://water.usgs.gov/edu/qa-home-percapita.html">the average person uses between 300 and 400 liters of water per day</a> for basic needs – like drinking, sanitation, bathing and food preparation. 

Globally, a country is said to experience a serious water scarcity problem if it has <a href="http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/maps/TRWR.Cap_eng.pdf">less than 500,000 liters of water</a> per person per year, to meet both their daily needs and agricultural needs.

This water budget process works if accurate data are available for each source of water. However, in many developing regions, such as Africa, the data required to calculate water budgets are not available. 

Yet Africa critically needs accurate information on its water scarcity status. As the second most populated continent, Africa is projected to have <a href="https://www.prb.org/2013-world-population-data-sheet/">a population of 2.4 billion by 2050</a>, approximately double the current estimated population. Such rapid population growth will exert considerable stress on the continent’s available water resources, worsening the already acute water scarcity situation. 

So, assessing the potentially available water resources is essential for the future.

<h2>Look to the skies</h2>

<a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11080904">Our study</a> takes a new approach to assessing water scarcity. 

We used data from two satellite systems. The first is called the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission, operated since 1997 by the U.S. and Japan. The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission uses several instruments – including a precipitation radar, microwave imager, visible and infrared scanner – to estimate rainfall. Getting the rainfall estimate right is critical, because this is the most important source of water for human use. 

The second type of satellite data is from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment, a joint mission between the U.S. and Germany. First launched in 2002, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment is a twin satellite mission that uses the changes in the Earth’s gravitational fields to infer changes in the global water resources, from the Earth’s surface to the deepest groundwater aquifers. 

We combined data from these two satellite systems to calculate the monthly potential available water from all sources of water for each country in Africa from 2002 to 2016. By dividing this value by the population in each country, we obtained a new measurement of available water storage per capita. 

Because the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment satellite data also estimates water in deep groundwater aquifers, which may not be accessible due to technical or economic limitations, we refer to this new estimate as potential available water storage.

<figure class="align-center zoomable">
 <a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283755/original/file-20190711-173347-18a9z4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img decoding="async" alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283755/original/file-20190711-173347-18a9z4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283755/original/file-20190711-173347-18a9z4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=600&amp;h=241&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283755/original/file-20190711-173347-18a9z4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=30&amp;auto=format&amp;w=600&amp;h=241&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283755/original/file-20190711-173347-18a9z4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=15&amp;auto=format&amp;w=600&amp;h=241&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283755/original/file-20190711-173347-18a9z4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;h=303&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283755/original/file-20190711-173347-18a9z4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=30&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;h=303&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283755/original/file-20190711-173347-18a9z4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=15&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;h=303&amp;fit=crop&amp;dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
 <figcaption>
 Potentially available water per capita, for present-day (A) and future estimates for the year 2025 (B) and 2050 (C).
 <a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11080904">Remote Sensing (2019)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a>
 </figcaption>
 </figure>

<h2>Measuring water, faster</h2>

We compared our results with the data currently used by the <a href="http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/index.html?lang=en">United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization</a>. Their method relies on conventional water budget accounting to estimate the total renewable water resources in a country. It then classifies each country into one of four categories: water-sufficient, vulnerable, water-stressed or water-scarce. 

Of the 48 African countries studied, our method classified 26 in the same category as the U.N.‘s method; 12 were classified as having more water than indicated and 10 as less. 

These differences are not surprising. Our estimate includes also water in aquifers deep underground that the U.N.’s method does not account for. Their method likely underestimates the total available water for countries that have substantial groundwater reserves. 

On the other hand, the accuracy of our method can be affected by the size of a country. Countries smaller than the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment footprint – the approximately 200,000 square kilometer blocks that the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment estimates can be made with confidence – are much more likely to be in error.

By 2050, assuming no change in available water resources, we project that 19 countries in Africa will face water scarcity and another nine countries will be water-stressed. However, if climate change were to cause Africa’s water resources to decrease by 10%, which is <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf">within the range of several climate projections for some African countries</a>, then approximately 85% of Africa’s population will experience a dangerous water scarcity situation. 

In general, we think that our method has several advantages over existing methods. It circumvents many of the limitations related to data unavailability and reliability in Africa. The data are more temporally and spatially continuous, as well as easier for researchers to access. As a result, estimates of water scarcity can be carried out much more rapidly for the entire continent. 

Satellites will gather new data in the coming years. We plan to take advantage of such data improvements as they become available to refine our method in terms of accuracy and water scarcity assessment at the sub-country level, not only in Africa but globally. 

[ Deep knowledge, daily. <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&amp;utm_medium=inline-link&amp;utm_campaign=newsletter-text&amp;utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>. ]<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120055/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important; text-shadow: none !important" />

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/emad-hasan-773516">Emad Hasan</a>, Postdoctoral Researcher in Geography, <a href="http://theconversation.com/institutions/binghamton-university-state-university-of-new-york-2252">Binghamton University, State University of New York</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/aondover-tarhule-773518">Aondover Tarhule</a>, Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School, <a href="http://theconversation.com/institutions/binghamton-university-state-university-of-new-york-2252">Binghamton University, State University of New York</a>

This article is republished from <a href="http://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-use-satellites-to-measure-water-scarcity-120055">original article</a>.

Here’s how satellites are used to measure water scarcity

<figure>
 <img decoding="async" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277727/original/file-20190603-69055-139n8j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&#038;q=45&#038;auto=format&#038;w=754&#038;fit=clip" />
 <figcaption>
 Aerial view of Kariba dam.
 Dmitriy Kandinskiy/Shutterstock
 </figcaption>
 </figure>

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/tafadzwa-makonese-750988">Tafadzwa Makonese</a>, <a href="http://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-johannesburg-1275">University of Johannesburg</a>

Zimbabwe’s government has announced its facing critical power shortfalls. The country’s anchor power producer, Kariba Dam, might <a href="https://www.fin24.com/Economy/Africa/zimbabwe-to-approach-eskom-for-help-as-kariba-dam-levels-drop-20190603">have to stop</a> production in weeks due to dropping water levels. Tafadzwa Makonese spoke to Moina Spooner from The Conversation Africa about what can be done.

What are the main challenges facing Zimbabwe’s energy system?

Zimbabwe has a severe energy crisis because its major sources of electricity are struggling to keep up with demand. 

Kariba power plant dam – where Zimbabwe gets <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304021888_Renewable_energy_in_Zimbabwe">57% of its electricity</a> – has low water levels due to poor rains last year. At the moment the dam, which sits on the border of Zimbabwe and Zambia, is producing <a href="https://www.thesouthafrican.com/news/zimbabwe-darkness-eight-to-ten-hour-load-shedding/">just 34%</a> of what it usually can. If Kariba stopped producing Zimbabwe would <a href="https://www.fin24.com/Economy/World/power-production-on-the-verge-of-shutdown-at-zims-kariba-dam-20190531">lose about 358 MW daily</a>, that’s about 300 000 homes without power. 

On top of this, Hwange colliery – which provides <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-07-02/hwange-of-zimbabwe-coal-output-to-surge-on-underground-mining">almost all</a> of Zimbabwe’s coal for power generation – is producing less <a href="https://www.fin24.com/Economy/World/power-production-on-the-verge-of-shutdown-at-zims-kariba-dam-20190531">because of</a> old and deteriorating infrastructure. 

Currently Zimbabwe <a href="https://af.reuters.com/article/africaTech/idAFL8N237276">produces</a> 1100 MW of power against a national demand of 1500 MW. This leaves a supply gap of 400 MW. The deficit is catered for <a href="https://www.fin24.com/Economy/zim-looks-to-sas-eskom-to-help-stave-off-load-shedding-20190512">by imports</a> from Mozambique and South Africa. 

But payments for these imports aren’t easy to keep up with. For the past 10 years Zimbabwe has been going through a <a href="https://world-news-monitor.com/money/finance/2019/05/31/zimbabwe-strikes-imf-deal-to-boost-new-currency/">currency crisis</a> caused by hyperinflation. This has severely eroded the power of local currency, leaving the Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority in a financial quagmire. They <a href="https://www.fin24.com/Economy/Africa/zimbabwe-to-approach-eskom-for-help-as-kariba-dam-levels-drop-20190603">currently owe</a> Eskom, South Africa’s power utility, over $33million.

Because of these challenges, any drop in national production means the government has to ration electricity. The government recently started a load shedding plan <a href="https://www.thesouthafrican.com/news/zimbabwe-darkness-eight-to-ten-hour-load-shedding/">to prevent</a> the collapse of the country’s power grid.

What are the short to medium term solutions?

One short-term solution could be small solar power systems that are rolled out while the government works to improve national power generation through additional hydropower plants, solar and wind farms. 

Small solar systems are an effective source of electricity in off-grid communities or they could be set up as mini-grids in communities that constantly suffer from power-cuts. Zimbabwe <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0973082614000787">has enough</a> solar power to support these.

These solar systems could be made cheaper through the introduction of subsidies and tax incentives. Even better, the government could waive taxes on all certified systems coming into the country. 

And more needs to be done to publicise the use of gas in urban and rural households. Gas is underused in Zimbabwe, partly because it is more expensive compared to other energy sources including kerosene. The government could look for investments through private partnerships to build gas mines. Zimbabwe <a href="https://www.herald.co.zw/zim-to-set-up-own-gas-mines/">has over 40 trillion</a> cubic feet of potentially recoverable methane gas in the Lupane-Lubimbi area. Considering the cost of building infrastructure to transport the gas from the production sites, it would be significantly cheaper to exploit these than to import from Mozambique. 

Industries that need to cope with power cuts should turn to energy storage. In Johannesburg, South Africa, some industries <a href="https://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/energy-storage-a-viable-solution-to-load-shedding-2019-04-05">have integrated</a> energy storage into their micro-grids – the solar energy <a href="https://www.altenergymag.com/article/2019/02/energy-storage-microgrids/30388/">is stored</a> in batteries that are used when the grid fails. 

Are there experiences from other countries, in fixing a dilapidated electricity system, that Zimbabwe can draw lessons from?

Nepal and Bangladesh are good examples. 

In 2014 Nepal was experiencing up to 12 hours of power cuts for the residential and industrial sector. This was <a href="https://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2018-05-14/entire-country-is-now-free-of-loadshedding.html">finally stopped</a> in 2017. Nepal invested heavily in run-of-the-river micro-hydropower plants. These are hydroelectric systems that harvest the energy from flowing water to generate electricity in the absence of a large dam and reservoir – as opposed to conventional hydroelectric power plants which rely on the power of water falling a large distance. 

It all paid off when water levels in major rivers rose and power could be generated. By 2018 the country <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/books/renewable-hydropower-technologies/hydropower-development-in-nepal-climate-change-impacts-and-implications">produced</a> 1000 MW from 782 MW in 2016.

Zimbabwe relied heavily on the Kariba Dam power station, without establishing more hydropower plants elsewhere. It <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610217354486">has huge</a> small-hydro potential. 

Bangladesh meanwhile shows how energy-saving behaviour – like turning off lights in unused rooms, use of solar water geysers, and use of energy efficient home appliances – under its national energy efficiency and conservation master plan <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40095-019-0302-3">reduced demand</a> by up to 51%.<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118209/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important; text-shadow: none !important" />

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/tafadzwa-makonese-750988">Tafadzwa Makonese</a>, Senior Research Fellow, Sustainable Energy Technology and Research Centre, <a href="http://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-johannesburg-1275">University of Johannesburg</a>

This article is republished from <a href="http://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/quick-fix-solutions-to-zimbabwes-huge-electricity-crisis-118209">original article</a>.

Water Levels

In the future there will be more rain but less water in the Nile Basin, what can be done?

Here’s how satellites are used to measure water scarcity

What are the short-term solutions to Zimbabwe’s huge electricity crisis ?

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Water Levels

In the future there will be more rain but less water in the Nile Basin, what can be done?

Here’s how satellites are used to measure water scarcity

What are the short-term solutions to Zimbabwe’s huge electricity crisis ?

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